ANTHROPOLOGICAL RESEARCHES AND STUDIES
No: 15, 2025

DRUG USE AND ALCOHOL ABUSE AMONG INMATES – CAUSES, CONSEQUENCES, PREVENTION

Andreea – Cătălina FORȚU (1) Cornelia RADA (2)
Keywords: drugs, alcohol abuse, inmates, penitentiary, addiction.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.26758/15.1.6

(1) Bucharest – Jilava Penitentiary, Jilava Commune, Ilfov County, Romania; School of Advanced Studies of the Romanian Academy, “Constantin Rădulescu-Motru” Institute of Philosophy and Psychology, Department of Psychology, Romanian Academy, Bucharest, Romania

(2) “Francisc I. Rainer” Institute of Anthropology, Romanian Academy; School of Advanced Studies of the Romanian Academy, “Constantin Rădulescu-Motru” Institute of Philosophy and Psychology, Department of Psychology, Romanian Academy, Bucharest, Romania; e-mail: corneliarada@yahoo.com

Address correspondence to: Andreea – Cătălina FORȚU, PhD Student, School of Advanced Studies of the Romanian Academy, “Constantin Rădulescu-Motru” Institute of Philosophy and Psychology, Department of Psychology, Romanian Academy, Bucharest, Romania, 13 September Avenue, No.13, 5th District, Bucharest, 050711, Romania. Phone: +40767684144; E-mail: andreea_catallina@yahoo.com

Abstract

Objectives. Drug use and alcohol abuse are initially a physical and mental health problem at the individual level, later with direct effects on public safety and security. In order to understand what are the appropriate measures in preventing and reducing these phenomena, this paper aimed to analyze the causes and consequences of substance use among inmates.

Material and Methods. This literature review was developed from a survey of relevant articles published online between 2000 and 2023, identified in the Oxford Journals, Research Gate, PsychInfo, Web of Science and Google Scholar databases. A total of 91 articles were analyzed, with qualitative and/or quantitative study samples totaling 31,253 inmates.

Results. In terms of identifying variables that are predictive for substance use, the individual’s risk profile captured elements such as impulsivity (8 studies), sensation seeking (7 studies), hopelessness (4 studies), low agreeableness (3 studies), introversion (3 studies), extraversion (3 studies) and high neuroticism (2 studies). The risk environment factors identified were criminal history, low social support, insufficient financial resources, presence of domestic violence and availability of drugs, alcohol in the family or entourage.

Conclusions. This literature review highlighted that the drug and alcohol use among inmates is associated with increased crime rates and medical problems, including HIV and hepatitis C infections. Research has underlined the importance of specialized interventions in prisons and in the post-release period to prevent relapse to drug use. Prevention should focus on screening, specialized treatment and post-release support, involving collaboration between institutions and families.

Keywords: drugs, alcohol abuse, inmates, penitentiary, addiction.

Suggested citation (APA)

Forțu, A.C., & Rada, C. (2025). Drug use and alcohol abuse among inmates – Causes, consequences, prevention. Anthropological Researches and Studies, 15, 92-112. https://doi.org/10.26758/15.1.6

Introduction

Drug use and alcohol abuse affect the person who uses them and their functioning in the family, the workplace and society in general. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), “substance abuse” refers to the harmful or hazardous use of psychoactive substances, including alcohol and illicit drugs. The involvement of key actors in each country’s society (institutions with a legislative role, public institutions with responsibilities in the field, non-governmental organizations) is imperative, given that, on average, each person in the world drinks 6.2 litres of pure alcohol per year and at least 15.3 million people have substance use disorders (WHO, 2018). This involvement includes the development, organization, monitoring and evaluation of treatment services for the inmates concerned.

Figure 1 captures the drug use phenomenon in the European Union, according to the European Drug Report 2022 prepared by the specialists of the European Monitoring Center for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). According to the same document, 72.6% of drug users in Romania are men and 10.7% of those aged 15-64 have used at least one type of illicit drug in their lifetime, with the age of 20 being the most common.

Figure 1

Drug situation in the period 2015-2020 (to see Figure 1, please click here)

The impact of drugs on society was analysed by the 2023 European Report, which noted that the phenomenon has exacerbated other problems, such as the lack of specialists, institutions, shelters, high rates of crime and corruption. Injecting drug users are also at considerable risk of contracting hepatitis B and C viruses or the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

At the European level, cannabis remains the most abused substance, with over 22 million European adults reporting use in 2022 (EMCDDA, 2023). People with persistent cannabis use has experienced a socio-economic decline (Siddiqui, Singh, Singh, Khan, Fernando, Baklanov, Ambartsumov & Ibrahim, 2022), exhibiting antisocial behavior, absenteeism from work and spending a long time thinking at ways of obtaining and using the substance (Frone, 2003; Apel, Bushway, Brame, Haviland, Nagin & Paternoster, 2007; Essien, Inyang, James & Emeh, 2016).

Cannabis Use Disorder is a pattern of problematic use that causes distress or dysfunction and over the course of an year, diagnostic elements emerge, such as: long-term or heavy use; a desire to stop the behavior and the unsuccessful efforts to limit or stop; the majority of time is spent procuring, consuming, or recovering from the effects of cannabis; uncontrollable craving; limited or total inability to meet professional or social obligations; curtailment of recreational activities; involvement in situations with risk of physical harm, such as driving a motor vehicle while under the influence of the substance; the onset of tolerance or withdrawal (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM V, pp. 509-516).

Considered a true “toxic pandemic” (Dura, 2012), alcohol misuse has caused 3 million deaths globally each year, accounting for 5.3% of all deaths (WHO, 2022). Europe is the region with the highest level of alcohol consumption, followed by the America, China and Africa (WHO, 2016). In 2019, Romania ranks 10th place in the European Union (Eurostat, 2022).

Because the process of addressing and curing alcohol dependence is a difficult one, often being a generational transmission of problematic consumption, prevention is important (Rada & Ispas, 2016). The actions, in this regard are aimed at informing about the effects of excessive alcohol consumption such as: disturbed interpersonal relationships, reduced feelings of responsibility, neglect of family members, loss of job (Vilcova, 2011). Taking into account the association of alcohol consumption with antisocial actions as a coping mechanism and with a high score of aggressiveness, there is a need for actions to educate young people in order to manage their emotions and adopt functional, prosocial mechanisms (Rada, Faludi & Lungu, 2024).

Alcohol use disorder consists of a pattern of consumption that causes clinically significant distress or dysfunction and that over the course of a year is manifested by: consumption in significant quantity or over a long period of time, efforts to stop consumption without results, allocating a good part of the time for procurement, consumption or recovery, uncontrollable urge to consume alcohol, failure to fulfill obligations at work or at home, ignoring social or professional problems that have arisen, the appereance of tolerance or withdrawal (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM V, p. 490-497).

Also, in addition to the chronic illnesses that can afflict drinkers after a long period of abuse, alcohol use has been associated with tragic consequences, such as suicide (Carpenter & Dobkin, 2009; Orpana, Giesbrecht, Hajee & Kaplan, 2021; Amiri & Behnezhad, 2020) or killing others, with violence (Landberg & Norstrom, 2011; Duke, Smith, Oberleitner, Westphal & McKee, 2018; Gadd, Henderson, Radcliffe, Stephens-Lewis, Johnson & Gilchrist, 2019), causing traffic accidents (Mokdad, Marks, Stroup & Gerberding, 2004; Carpenter & Dobkin, 2009). Alcohol has been estimated to cause about 20-30% of cases of esophageal cancer, liver cancer, liver cirrhosis (Pompili, Serafini, Innamorati, Dominici, Ferracuti, Kotzalidis & Lester, 2010; Rehm, Shield & Weiderpass, 2020), and is therefore a risk factor for these diseases.

Convicted offenders reported a significantly more frequent and higher history of drug use than the general population (Norman, 2023). At the European level, EMCDDA surveys conducted between 2001 and 2006 showed that the proportion of inmates who had a history of using an illegal drug at least once varied widely between countries, from a third or less (Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania) to over 50% to 84% in a women’s prison in England and Wales. Of the substances used, cannabis remained the most commonly reported illegal drug by inmates (approximately 70% prevalence level), and a third of those surveyed in 2008 had injected drugs at least once in their lifetime. In 2020, EMCDDA specialists identified that between 30% and 75% of people with problematic drug use had been in prison at some point in their lifetime.

Maruschak, Bronson & Alper (2021) found that one-quarter of U.S. inmates reported alcohol use at the time of offense. The National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence (NCADD, 2020) provided data that approximately 40% of incarcerated persons convicted of violent offenses in U.S. states were under the influence of alcohol during the commission of their offenses, with many having an estimated blood alcohol level more than three times the legal limit at the time of their arrest.

The high proportion of incarcerated persons with a history of excessive alcohol and/or drug use justifies the choice of this literature review which aims to analyze the causes and consequences of these two phenomena in order to highlight what needs to be considered when creating strategies to prevent alcohol abuse and drug use.

Material and methods

General objectives

This literature review has 2 objectives:

O1. To identify in the literature the causes and consequences of drug use in people who have committed illegal acts and are deprived of their liberty.

O2. To develop a consistent review of existing information in the literature on alcohol consumption in inmates in the pre-incarceration period.

Research questions

  1. What are the causes and consequences of alcohol and drug use among inmates in the pre-incarceration period?
  2. How can these phenomena among inmates be prevented?

The strategy for the selection of specialized studies

This literature review was developed by searching articles identified in the following databases: Oxford Journals, Research Gate, PsychInfo, Web of Science and Google Scholar. The keywords used to obtain relevant articles were: drugs, alcohol abuse, inmate, prison, prison, addiction.

According to Fig. 2, 551 articles written in English and published online between 2000 and 2023 were selected. First, a number of 20 duplicate articles were removed, the abstracts of the 531 materials were then reviewed. Subsequently, in analyzing the articles, it was found that, although the title referred to the prison/prisoner environment, 33 articles contained theoretical information irrelevant to the objectives of this review. A further 83 were removed because there was no access to relevant information without payment of a fee. A total of 415 materials were reviewed, of which 324 were excluded because: they focused only on clinical assessment of subjects (n=43), the subjects in the studies were drug and alcohol users but not offenders/inmates (n=72), the causes/consequences of drug/alcohol abuse among inmates were not analyzed (n=209). Consequently, 91 papers were identified as eligible for the present literature review.

The studies in the articles are of quantitative and/or qualitative type, with a total number of 31,253 persons in prison and 3 inclusion criteria were considered: 1) the analyzed group must be persons deprived of liberty, incarcerated in penitentiary (the following criteria were eliminated from articles in which the research sample was made up of persons admitted to psychiatric centers or hospitals, communities outside the penitentiary); 2) the age of the persons in the research to be at least 18 years old and 3) persons with a history of alcohol and/or drug abuse prior to incarceration.

There were no inclusion or exclusion criteria based on the gender of the sample persons. Studies were excluded if they did not explicitly examine factors related to the topic of this literature review, but only aspects such as aggression, impulsivity, without a direct correlation with substance abuse.

Figure 2

Diagram of the systematic review process (to see Figure 2, please click here)

Results

Drug and alcohol use among inmates – causes

The prevalence of drug use in the prison population is alarming (Moradi et al, 2020), approximately 63% of incarcerated convicted felons in U.S. states between 2007-2009 met DSM-IV criteria for drug dependence according to the National Survey on Drug Use by the Center on Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services (NSDUH, 2010). The interplay between individual and environmental factors results in 3 types of levels of analysis of drug use and alcohol misuse – individual, micro, and macro-environmental (Binswanger et al, 2012).

Individual characteristics

In terms of identifying variables that are predictive of substance use, the individual risk profile (Fig. no. 3) in this literature review was based on a search of 22 articles, and the majority of articles (12) assessed the specific characteristics of the inmate – psychoactive substance user. Most studies were conducted in the USA – 11, and in Iran and the UK – 3 each. Data from Italy, Egypt, Portugal, Germany and Sweden were included in one study each.

Among the individual characteristics identified in the research are elements such as hopelessness, impulsivity, sensation seeking (Hopley & Brunelle, 2016), high neuroticism, high openness to experience and low agreeableness (Dash, Martin & Slutske, 2023).

Hopelessness was found in the study by Jalilian, Karami Matin, Ahmadpanah, Motlagh, Mahboubi & Eslami (2014) as a risk factor for alcohol abuse, but not for drug abuse. Along with problem-solving ability, hopelessness has been analyzed as a predictor of suicidal thoughts among people diagnosed with substance abuse (Iliceto, Pompili, Girardi, Lester, Vincenti, Rihmer, & Akiskal, 2010; Rezaeisharif, Karimi & Naeim, 2021), and more than one-third of the study sample had high levels of hopelessness (Atia & Ahmed, 2020).

Substance abuse increases the overall risk of delinquency and, in particular, violent crime (Nigel et al, 2018). The conclusion of Hopley & Brunelle’s (2016) study of a sample of 118 offenders in New Brunswick, Canada was that the high levels of sensation seeking indicate an increased risk of substance abuse in this population. Investigating the predictive value of personality characteristics in alcohol use in inmates has led to the examination of anxiety disorders (Conrod, Castellanos-Ryan & Mackie, 2011; Værøy, 2011), with users utilizing the substance as a way to manage their felt state.

The hypothesis that the relationship between the sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) and the sensation-seeking in inmates might be mediated by elements such as alcohol and drugs has been analyzed (Aluja & García, 2005) and confirmed. This SHGB is a specific sex hormone binding protein, and its concentration influences steroid bioavailability and estro-androgenic balance (Selby, 1990). It was analyzed in a sample of 89 inmates (Aluja & García, 2007): the group with a high probability of antisocial personality disorder and the group with high aggression scores had higher SHBG levels. Recidivists and already sentenced subjects showed higher SHBG concentrations. The conclusion of the study was that subjects with a disinhibited lifestyle tend to abuse toxic substances that affect SHBG production in the liver.

Both impulsivity and sensation-seeking have been implicated in the development of substance use disorders (Ersche, Turton, Pradhan, Bullmore & Robbins, 2010). In a study of four groups of substance users (cannabis, alcohol, heroin and multiple drugs), it was shown that they scored significantly higher on sensation, adventure and experience seeking scales than the control group (Dubey & Arora 2008).

A positive relationship has been found between drug use, respectively alcohol abuse and impulsivity among inmates (Mooney, Minor, Wells, Wells, Leukefeld, Oser & Staton Tindall, 2008; Bernstein, McSheffrey, van den Berg, Vela, Vela, Stein, Stein, Roberts, & Clarke, 2015). For example, among inmates in Sweden (N=130), the most commonly diagnosed mental disorders were alcohol and drug abuse/dependence, present in 55% of subjects (Longato-Stadler, Knorring, & Hallman, 2002). High scores were found on scales related to impulsivity, sensation seeking, hostility, and aggression, and low scores on the socialization scale, reflecting a high degree of personality traits related to psychopathy. Hopley & Brunelle (2012) found that high impulsivity is an indirect mediator between psychopathy and alcohol, defined as an inability to self-regulate, resulting in a lack of inhibition in the face of negative consequences (Conrod, Pihl, Stewart & Dongier, 2000).

Regarding female inmates, Brunelle, Pihl & Stewart, (2009) compared a group of 32 female inmates with a history of drug use with a control group on the following personality dimensions: hopelessness/introversion, anxiety sensitivity, impulsivity and sensation seeking. Stimulant abuse/dependence, impulsivity and sensation-seeking were significant independent predictors of incarceration, and a substance use disorder was identified as a partial mediator of the relationship between sensation-seeking and incarceration.

The study by Nigel et al (2018) sampled 164 men and women with substance use disorders who had committed homicide offenses. They examined the relationships between psychopathy, empathy, and general personality traits and their role in statistically predicting violent crime by drug offenders. The psychopathy factor Impulsive Antisociality (IA) emerged as a positive statistical predictor of violent offending, while Fearless Dominance (FD) served as a negative predictor. Therefore, substance-using violent offenders exhibit a distinct pattern of personality characteristics, with IA being associated with high neuroticism, low agreeableness, and low conscientiousness.

Regarding the extraversion – introversion dimension, the identified studies did not come to a common conclusion: while Hopley & Brunelle (2016) identified introversion as a predictor of drug use, authors Dash, Martin & Slutske (2023) found that high extraversion was associated with cocaine/crack and stimulant use. Cocaine users and opiate users were also found to be more introverted, whereas amphetamine and barbiturate users were more extraverted (Spotts & Shontz, 1984). Introverted people accumulate thoughts, worries, and focus on seeking solutions only relying on their own resources (Roy, 2003), unable to confront difficulties with the help of others, engaging in avoidance behaviors (Walker, 2020), in which drug dependence being seen as a false solution (DordiNejad & Shiran, 2011).

Figure 3

Individual characteristics – causes of drug and alcohol use (to see Figure 3, please click here)

The risk environment

The concept of “risk environment” has been defined as a social or physical space in which a multitude of factors (Fig. 4) interact in order to increase the likelihood of dysfunction (Rhodes, 2009), with the relationships between the person and the environment influencing the occurrence or, where appropriate, reducing the effects of drug use (Rhodes et al, 2003).

Concerning the significant risk factors for drug use, a history of previous imprisonment was confirmed in a study in Iran, study which found that among 6200 inmates in 26 prisons, 74% had a history of drug use (Moradi et al, 2020). Once released, the ex-inmates are at high risk of relapse to drug or alcohol use because they return to an environment marked by poor social support and insufficient financial resources (Binswanger et al, 2012).

Narrowed down in terms of risk environment, the likelihood of developing drug or alcohol dependence is increased in individuals who have experienced or witnessed physical or sexual violence (Devi & Singh, 2023). Family conflict is a risk for developing alcohol dependence (Turner, Larimer & Sarason, 2000; Marsiglia, Kulis, Parsai, Villar & Garcia, 2009) and substance use (Ashby Wills & Yaeger, 2003; Mallett, Rosenthal & Keys, 2005). Also, poverty (Neugebauer, 2009; Mendes, Ronzani & de Paiva, 2019), availability of drugs within a community (von Sydow, Lieb, Pfister, Höfler & Wittchen, 2002; Petruzzi et al., 2018) and homelessness (Thompson, 2005; Lee et al, 2011) have been identified as risk factors.

The psychological violence commited by parents and siblings was considered like a predictive variable and psychoactive substance use like a dependent variable in Rodríguez Díaz’s et al (2013) study, which examined the relationship between family environment and criminal behavior since childhood. The sample consisted of 157 Spanish inmates, and the research confirmed the hypothesis that family violence affects the emotional development and psychosocial adjustment of young people. Of the entire sample, the highest percentage of physical violence suffered by the convicted offender was perpetrated by the father (49.7%) and siblings (47.1%). The share increased when psychological violence was analyzed: the father was again the most violent family member (64.3%), followed by siblings (58.6%) and the mother (56.7%).

The study, conducted in France on a sample of 998 inmates in 23 prisons, found that people separated from one parent in early childhood were at higher risk of drug use. At the same time, low educational attainment was associated with risk for alcohol use (Lukasiewicz et al, 2007).

Family history of substance use was also identified as another determinant of the development of a substance use disorder among participants in the study conducted by Yitayih et al (2018) on a sample of 336 inmates in Ethiopia. The same variable – family substance use – was confirmed by Nevárez-Sida, Constantino-Casas & Castro-Ríos (2012). The authors identified the characteristics that most strongly influenced the low risk of pre-incarceration drug use: high level of education, having a job and having children (a family to support).

After analyzing a case study (Baciu, 2017), which presented a 27-year-old patient, university graduate, unmarried, addicted to heroin, gambling and betting, who also associated alcohol and tobacco use, suffering from hepatitis C virus, it was possible to observe the influence that family and circle of friends had on the onset of drug use, as well as other acts such as breaking the law. The patient came from a disorganized family, dominated by strained relationships, drug use, heavy smoking and constant gambling. His circle of friends also included drug users, heavy smokers and constant gamblers, as well as people who broke the law. All these aspects were also reflected in the behavior of the presented patient who, although he had a job, felt marginalized, “like a kind of convict” (Baciu, 2017, p. 66-67).

Figure 4

Risk environment – causes of drug and alcohol use (to see Figure 4, please click here)

Drug and alcohol use in inmates – consequences

Drug use and alcohol misuse is not only a challenge facing the public health system, but also a danger to the public safety and security. Alcohol and drugs have been found to be the main causes of rising crime rates (Gresnigt, Breteler, Schippers & Van den Hurk, 2000; van Amsterdam, Ramaekers, Verkes, Kuypers, Goudriaan & Van den Brink, 2020). Decreased self-control and ignoring the consequences of one’s actions have led to antisocial acts (Pescaru, 2009), such as sexual and physical assaults, and homicides.

Lifetime substance abuse or addiction disorders have been detected in prisons in a majority proportion, for example a 97.1% of the total incarcerated population in Pakistan had a history of substance abuse at least once in their lifetime (Jamal, Waheed & Shakoor, 2022).

Medical consequences – from poor health to suicide

Health problems related to substance use in a vulnerable group as a prison population that are analyzed in the literature (Freeman, 2012; Wrigley et al, 2016; Novisky, Nowotny, Jackson, Testa & Vaughn, 2021) are both medical and psychological. Communicable diseases, such as hepatitis C virus, HIV and syphilis (Friestad & Kjelsberg, 2009), cardiovascular complications, the infectious diseases (Narevic et al, 2006), and the depression (Yi, Turney & Wildeman, 2017) have been – in a frequently way – found among these inmates.

Hepatitis C virus infection among the inmates has a prevalence ranging from 3.1% to 38% depending on the country and the rate of intravenous drug use, which is the greatest risk factor for this disease (Zampino, Coppola, Sagnelli, Di Caprio & Sagnelli, 2015). Hepatitis C virus is the most common chronic blood-borne viral infection in U.S. prisons, being reported in 27% of 1331 subjects in the study by Peña-Orellana, Hernández-Viver, Caraballo-Correa & Albizu-García (2011).

In prisons, the level of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is high due to the high number of substance users among inmates. For example, 28% of inmates in Vietnam were HIV positive in 2000, and in Estonia, up to 90% of inmates were HIV positive in 2004 (Dolan et al, 2015, apud Tsereteli, 2004). At the other extreme, in Australia even though about 50% of inmates were injecting drug users, HIV prevalence was almost zero (Dolan et al, 2015, apud Butler, 2011).

A direct association has been found between substance use disorder and other mental disorders: for example, alcohol use has been analyzed as a determinant of depression by Jane-Llopis & Matytsina (2006). They showed that offenders with depressive symptoms have more severe symptoms than the non-depressed offenders, but may be more likely to treat their alcohol use (Holt, O’Malley, Rounsaville & Ball, 2009). Also confirming the idea that depression is a consequence of alcohol use and, – at the same time, – a strong predictor of readiness to change, Nochajski, Stasiewicz & Patterson (2013) showed in their study over a sample of 443 inmates that the high-depression group was more likely to enter the treatment than the low-depression group; in addition, the treated high-depression group had the largest positive gains in all behavior change outcomes.

High blood alcohol levels impair physical and mental capacity which often results in police intervention and restriction of liberties (Salvatore, 2013). In a Finnish study on a sample of 800 subjects, including violent alcoholic offenders, it was found that alcoholic offenders have a low brain turnover of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT), which is associated with impaired impulse control, a history of suicide attempts (Virkkunen, Goldman & Linnoila, 2007). This confirms the results of psychological tests and biochemical measurements in Scandinavian early-onset alcoholic men with antisocial traits: the low 5-HT concentration in alcoholic offenders has been associated with irritability and impaired impulse control, increased aggression, suspiciousness and reduced socialization (Virkkunen et al, 1994).

Alcoholism and depression are often comorbid, with depressed subjects with alcoholism having a high rate of suicidal behavior (Sher et al, 2005). Alcoholism has been associated with a high suicidal risk (Sher, 2006), as a result of factors present in this disorder: major depressive episodes (Hodgins, 2004; Wiesner, Kim & Capaldi, 2005), interpersonal difficulties (Pankow & Knight, 2012), high aggression/impulsivity (Tikkanen, 2009), serious medical illness (Chartrand & Forbes-Chilibeck, 2003).

Legal consequences – recidivism

Drug use causes a person to be incarcerated either for offenses related to drug use or drug trafficking, or for other offenses such as theft, robbery, in order to obtain financial resources to purchase drugs, or for illegal acts committed under the influence of psychoactive substances, for which the person has no real, rational justification (such as driving under the influence of drugs, traffic accident, etc.); for example, more than half of inmates in American prisons had used at least one illicit substance in the month prior to their offense, and more than a quarter of inmates were under the influence of drugs when they committed the offense (Bernstein, McSheffrey, van den Berg, Stein, Roberts & Clarke, 2015, apud Mumola & Karberg, 2006).

Studies show that in the majority of cases the perpetrators were under the influence of alcohol: in Finland, 491 people were murdered within 4 years, and about 82% of the murderers were under the influence of alcohol, where 39% of them were alcoholics (Liem, Ganpat, Granath, Hagstedt, Kivivuori, Lehti & Nieuwbeerta, 2013), in Singapore, of 253 people convicted of the offense of murder, 141 people (56%) had an alcohol use disorder and 121 offenders (48%) had consumed alcohol within 24 hours prior to the offense (Yeo, Singham & Poremski, 2019).

In their systematic review made by Fazel and Doll (2006), they identified in 13 studies (total number of 7563 inmates) a prevalence of alcohol abuse among males between 18 and 30% and drug abuse between 10 and 48% among males and between 10 and 24% among females and between 10 and 24% among males and between 30 and 60% among females.

Also confirming that the representation of these phenomena is much higher among offenders, it is relevant the study conducted in 2006 in Finland on 610 incarcerated persons; alcohol abuse/dependence was diagnosed in 68% among male and 70% among female inmates, and in the case of drugs – 62% among male and 70% among female inmates (Lintonen et al).

Drug and alcohol abuse correlates positively with recidivism (Chyliski 1992 apud Nilsson, 2003) and negatively with desistance from crime (Nilsson, Estrada & Backman, 2014, apud Laub & Sampson, 2003). Substance use predicts criminal recidivism, an aspect shown in the study by Håkansson & Berglund (2012), in which 4152 Swedish inmates with a history of substance use were monitored for 2.7 years. Of these, 69% had re-offended, recidivism was positively associated with amphetamine and heroin use and negatively associated with alcohol. Moreover, recently released inmates were at increased risk of overdose, of 2515 drug users, 33% reported at least one overdose (Kinner et al, 2012).

Having previously served a prison sentence and drug abuse have been confirmed by Nilsson (2003) as predictors of the risk of recidivism: two thirds of the sample studied had been involved in previous drug offenses or theft. Those who had been convicted of both theft and drug offenses had a very high frequency of recidivism (81%). The results of a meta-analysis of 45 studies confirmed the predictive relationship between substance abuse and criminal recidivism, with the combination of alcohol and drugs having the highest predictive score, followed by drug abuse and then alcohol (Dowden & Brown, 2002).

In a Swedish study (Karlsson& Håkansson, 2022) of approximately 5000 inmates, risk factors for criminal recidivism were assessed, with 68% of inmates returning to prison. Among the risk factors identified were post-release substance use, with heroin use increasing the risk of recidivism for property and drug offenses and alcohol increasing the risk of violent recidivism.

Offenders with problematic alcohol use not only recidivate violently, but also much earlier than non-alcoholics (Castillo & Fiftal Alarid, 2011): compared to first-time offenders, recidivists have a higher interest in alcohol and therefore find it difficult to abstain from alcohol for long periods of time (Cheng et al, 2021).

By interviewing rural and urban drug-involved inmates before parole and again one year later, Webster, Dickson, Staton-Tindall & Leukefeld (2015) studied the phenomenon of recidivism by collecting data on criminal history, substance use and mental health. The strongest predictors of recidivism were incarceration at a young age and substance use. Also using a 2-year post-release sample examination method, Shannon, Jones & Newell (2019) examined recidivism by gender; for males, the variable associated with increased odds of recidivism was the number of positive drug tests, and for females, 2 variables were found – prior alcohol offense conviction and number of positive drug tests.

Drug and alcohol use among inmates – prevention

Based on evidence that inmates are more than five times more at risk than the general population of having a substance use disorder (Dolan, Rodas & Bode, 2015), specialist intervention is a priority and aims to tackle substance use within prisons as well as prevent relapse post-release. Release from prison is associated with a significantly increased risk of drug overdose in the presence of risk factors such as homelessness (Kinner et al, 2012) and insufficient financial resources (Binswanger et al, 2012).

Knowing that deprivation of liberty most often coincides with a period of imposed abstinence and not as a result of one’s own choice, the need for screening upon admission to prison, specialized treatment during detention and follow-up upon release in order to prevent relapse into substance abuse is highlighted (Fazel & Doll, 2006).

The pre-release period is a critical time that can make the difference between a life with drugs and/or alcohol and a life of abstinence, some of the useful action directions in shaping a prosocial post-release life are: increasing communication and collaboration between institutions for a continuum of care for addiction problems, preparing the process of reintegration into society to start at least 6 months before release by capturing risk and protective factors individualized to each person – housing, job, support from family, specialized associations, e.g. Alcoholics/Narcotics Anonymous (Leukefeld et al, 2009).

The same period – 6 months post-release – was also confirmed as critical in the longitudinal study by Thomas, Degenhardt, Alati & Kinner (2014), based on surveys of 1325 adult sentenced inmates in Queensland, Australia. Alcohol and amphetamine-type stimulant use were confirmed at 3 months post-release and 6 months post-release, respectively.

According to the descriptive and analytic cross-sectional descriptive and analytic cross-sectional study conducted in 2015 in a prison in Iran, risk factors for substance use were identified in three domains: individual (positive attitude towards drugs), social (lack of access to counseling services) and interpersonal (quality of entourage). Based on this evidence, substance use prevention programs should be built around elements such as providing specialized support and counseling services, limiting access to friends with a history of substance use, and changing attitudes about substances (Khalooei, Mashayekhi-Dowlatabad, Rajabalipour & Iranpour, 2019).

Therefore, in order to prevent relapse to drug/alcohol use, a defining role is the involvement of authorities, friends and family by providing medical treatment, organizing small therapy groups (Park & Kim, 2010), including self-help groups or structured programs with a religious/spiritual focus (Binswanger et al, 2012).

An ethnographic study (Durnescu, 2018) involving 58 participants released from a Romanian penitentiary between January and July 2015 captures the stages of the process leading to relapse. In the first stage, referred to as anticipation, the prisoner knows that he or she will enter the parole proposal committee and begins to project more and more intensely the life from which he or she has taken a break: he or she has hopes, more or less outlined plans for the future. After the period of anticipation, there follows the phase of recovery and reunification with family members. After this period comes the activation stage – when the ex-offender wants to become self-sufficient, looks for a job, which makes the difference between successful reintegration into society or entering the final stage: reoffending. The researcher believes that the state, through existing institutions, needs to create mechanisms to respond to many of the needs of ex-inmates: identity papers, housing, drug user centers or different forms of social support or inclusion.

 Figure 5

Prevention factors in the recidivism of drug and/or alcohol consumption among detainees in the post-release period (to see Figure 5, please click here)

Conclusions

Identifying the causes of alcohol and drug use among inmates is essential for planning to combat the phenomenon in prisons and to prevent recidivism in the post-release period. A review of the literature shows that a majority of people with a history of alcohol and/or drug abuse are in prison for offenses directly related to addiction.

The consequences of substance misuse (alcohol, tobacco and/or drugs), whether medical (physical or psychological problems) or legal, make the social reintegration of inmates vulnerable and considerably increase the risk of recidivism after release. The encouragement of a culture of education and work by the State through its specialized institutions, first in prison and then after release for at least six months, can provide a favourable context for vulnerable people in need of both social and psychological help to overcome addiction to one or more substances.

This article has several limitations. First of all, access to about a quarter of the articles was through abstracts, as full access required buying them for a fee. This may negatively influence the presentation of results in a comprehensive way of the researched studies. Second, the small amount of research on substance use and the extraversion/introversion psychological dimensions of substance use has considerably reduced our understanding of this relationship. In the future, a meta-analysis of studies in this area may bring to the forefront significant information needed to individualize specialized intervention for this type of users.

What is not sufficiently addressed and may be a future research direction is the hypothesis that alcohol and drug use precedes deviant behavior, and that personality traits such as impulsivity and sensation-seeking may be a cause of substance abuse as well as an effect.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

References

  1. Aluja, A., & García, L. F. (2005). Sensation seeking, sexual curiosity and testosterone in inmates. Neuropsychobiology, 51(1), 28-33. doi:1159/000082852
  2. Aluja, A., & García, L. F. (2007). Role of sex hormone-binding globulin in the relationship between sex hormones and antisocial and aggressive personality in inmates. Psychiatry research2-3 (2007): 189-196. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2006.03.022
  3. American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders(5th ed., text rev.). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425787
  4. Amiri, S., & Behnezhad, S. (2020). Alcohol use and risk of suicide: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. Journal of addictive diseases, 38(2), 200-213. https://doi.org/10.1080/10550887.2020.1736757
  5. Apel, R., Bushway, S., Brame, R., Haviland, A. M., Nagin, D. S., & Paternoster, R. (2007). Unpacking the relationship between adolescent employment and antisocial behavior: A matched samples comparison. Criminology, 45(1), 67-97. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2007.00072.x
  6. Ashby Wills, T., & Yaeger, A. M. (2003). Family factors and adolescent substance use: Models and mechanisms. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(6), 222-226. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0963-7214.2003.01266.x
  7. Atia, S. M., & Ahmed, H. (2020). Predictors of Suicidal Thoughts among Substance Abuse Patients: Problem-Solving Ability and Hopelessness. Egyptian Journal of Health Care, EJH, 11(4). https://ejhc.journals.ekb.eg/article_124848_62a78036f7158bac9c62c428373f44d5.pdf
  8. Baciu, A. B. (2017). Drug Use–A Medical, Anthropological and Psychosocial Phenomenon. Shaker Verlag.
  9. Bernstein, M. H., McSheffrey, S. N., van den Berg, J. J., Vela, J. E., Stein, L. A. R., Roberts, M. B., … & Clarke, J. G. (2015). The association between impulsivity and alcohol/drug use among prison inmates. Addictive Behaviors, 42, 140-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.11.016
  10. Binswanger, I. A., Nowels, C., Corsi, K. F., Glanz, J., Long, J., Booth, R. E., & Steiner, J. F. (2012). Return to drug use and overdose after release from prison: a qualitative study of risk and protective factors. Addiction science & clinical practice, 7(1), 1-9. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/1940-0640-7-3
  11. Bronson, J., Stroop, J., Zimmer, S., & Berzofsky, M. (2017). Drug use, dependence, and abuse among state inmates and jail inmates, 2007–2009. Washington, DC: United States Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/86068140/dudaspji0709-libre.pdf
  12. Brunelle, C., Douglas, R. L., Pihl, R. O., & Stewart, S. H. (2009). Personality and substance use disorders in female offenders: A matched controlled study. Personality and Individual Differences, 46(4), 472-476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.11.017
  13. Carpenter, C., & Dobkin, C. (2009). The effect of alcohol consumption on mortality: regression discontinuity evidence from the minimum drinking age. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 1(1), 164-182. https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/app.1.1.164
  14. Castillo, E. D., & Fiftal Alarid, L. (2011). Factors associated with recidivism among offenders with mental illness. International journal of offender therapy and comparative criminology, 55(1), 98-117. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X0935950
  15. Chartrand, L. N., & Forbes-Chilibeck, E. M. (2003). The sentencing of offenders with fetal alcohol syndrome. Health LJ, 11, 35. https://www.academia.edu/74305238/
  16. Cheng, W. J., Chen, L. Y., Fang, S. C., Chang, H. M., Yang, T. W., Chang, R. C., … & Huang, M. C. (2021). Examining factors associated with postintervention recidivism in DUI repeat offenders after alcohol treatment: One-year follow-up study. Journal of substance abuse treatment, 130, 108426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2021.108426
  17. Conrod, P. J., Pihl, R. O., Stewart, S. H., & Dongier, M. (2000). Validation of a system of classifying female substance abusers on the basis of personality and motivational risk factors for substance abuse. Psychology of addictive behaviors, 14(3), 243.  https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-164X.14.3.243
  18. Conrod, P. J., Castellanos-Ryan, N., & Mackie, C. (2011). Long-term effects of a personality-targeted intervention to reduce alcohol use in adolescents. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 79(3), 296. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022997
  19. Dash, G. F., Martin, N. G., & Slutske, W. S. (2023). Big Five personality traits and illicit drug use: Specificity in trait–drug associations. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 37(2), 318–330. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000793
  20. Devi, S., & Singh, S. (2023). Risk Factors for Drug Addiction: A Review. Indian Journal of Health & Wellbeing, 14(3). https://iahrw.org/our-services/journals/indian-journal-of-health-wellbeing/
  21. Dolan, K., Rodas, A., & Bode, A. (2015). Drug and alcohol use and treatment for Australian Indigenous and non-Indigenous inmates: demand reduction strategies. International journal of prisoner health, 11(1), 30-38. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJPH-02-2014-0005/full/html
  22. Dolan, K., Moazen, B., Noori, A., Rahimzadeh, S., Farzadfar, F., & Hariga, F. (2015). People who inject drugs in prison: HIV prevalence, transmission and prevention. International Journal of Drug Policy, 26, S12-S15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2014.10.012
  23. DordiNejad, F. G., & Shiran, M. A. G. (2011). Personality traits and drug usage among addicts. Literacy Information and Computer Education Journal, 2(2), 402-405. https://infonomics-society.org/
  24. Dowden, C., & Brown, S. L. (2002). The role of substance abuse factors in predicting recidivism: A meta-analysis. Psychology, Crime and Law, 8(3), 243-264. https://doi.org/10.1080/106831602084011
  25. Dubey, C., & Arora, M. (2008). Sensation seeking level and drug of choice. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, 34(1), 73-82. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-00522-007
  26. Duke, A. A., Smith, K. M., Oberleitner, L., Westphal, A., & McKee, S. A. (2018). Alcohol, drugs, and violence: A meta-meta-analysis. Psychology of violence, 8(2), 238. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000106
  27. Dura, S. (2012). ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION. CHARACTERISTICS, MEDICAL AND SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES. Acta Medica Transilvanica, 17(3). https://amtsibiu.ro/Arhiva/2012/Nr3-en/Dura2.pdf
  28. Durnescu, I. (2018). The five stages of prisoner reentry: Toward a process theory. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 62(8), 2195-2215. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X1770688
  29. Ersche, K. D., Turton, A. J., Pradhan, S., Bullmore, E. T., & Robbins, T. W. (2010). Drug addiction endophenotypes: impulsive versus sensation-seeking personality traits. Biological psychiatry, 68(8), 770-773. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.06.015
  30. Essien, B. S., Inyang, E. M., James, S. A., & Emeh, P. B. (2016). Marijuana Use and Behavioural Outcomes among Adolescent Youths in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 7(5), 349-360. doi: 5901/mjss.2016.v7n5p349
  31. Fazel, S., Bains, P., & Doll, H. (2006). Substance abuse and dependence in inmates: a systematic review. Addiction, 101(2), 181-191. doi:1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01316.x
  32. Freeman, J. (2012). The relationship between lower intelligence, crime and custodial outcomes: a brief literary review of a vulnerable group. Vulnerable Groups & Inclusion, 3(1), 14834. https://doi.org/10.3402/vgi.v3i0.14834
  33. Friestad, C., & Kjelsberg, E. (2009). Drug use and mental health problems among prison inmates—Results from a nation-wide prison population study. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 63(3), 237-245. https://doi.org/10.1080/08039480802571044
  34. Frone, M. R. (2003). Predictors of overall and on-the-job substance use among young workers. Journal of occupational health psychology, 8(1), 39. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.8.1.39
  35. Gadd, D., Henderson, J., Radcliffe, P., Stephens-Lewis, D., Johnson, A., & Gilchrist, G. (2019). The dynamics of domestic abuse and drug and alcohol dependency. The British Journal of Criminology, 59(5), 1035-1053. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azz063
  36. Gresnigt, J. A. M., Breteler, M. H. M., Schippers, G. M., & Van den Hurk, A. A. (2000). Predicting violent crime among drug‐using inmates: The Addiction Severity Index as a prediction instrument. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 5(1), 83-95. https://doi.org/10.1348/135532500167994
  37. Håkansson, A., & Berglund, M. (2012). Risk factors for criminal recidivism–a prospective follow-up study in inmates with substance abuse. BMC psychiatry, 12, 1-8. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/1471-244X-12-111
  38. Hodgins, S. (2004). Offenders with major mental disorders. The essential handbook of offender assessment and treatment, 219-238.
  39. Hopley, A. A., & Brunelle, C. (2012). Personality mediators of psychopathy and substance dependence in male offenders. Addictive Behaviors, 37(8), 947-955. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.03.031
  40. Hopley, A. A. , & Brunelle, C. (2016). Substance use in incarcerated male offenders: predictive validity of a personality typology of substance misusers. Addictive Behaviors, 53, 86-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2015.10.001
  41. Holt, L. J., O’Malley, S. S., Rounsaville, B. J., & Ball, S. A. (2009). Depressive symptoms, drinking consequences, and motivation to change in first time DWI offenders. The American journal of drug and alcohol abuse, 35(3), 117-122. https://doi.org/10.1080/00952990802585398
  42. Iliceto, P., Pompili, M., Girardi, P., Lester, D., Vincenti, C., Rihmer, Z., … & Akiskal, H. S. (2010). Hopelessness, temperament, and health perception in heroin addicts. Journal of addictive diseases, 29(3), 352-358. https://doi.org/10.1080/10550887.2010.489448
  43. Jalilian, F., Karami Matin, B., Ahmadpanah, M., Motlagh, F., Mahboubi, M., & Eslami, A. A. (2014). Substance abuse among college students: Investigation the role of hopelessness. Life Science Journal, 11(9 SPEC), 396-399. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Farzad-Jalilian/publication/289850946
  44. Jamal, M., Waheed, S., & Shakoor, A. (2022). The prevalence of substance abuse and associated factors among male prisoners in Karachi jails, Pakistan. Journal of Taibah University Medical Sciences, 17(6), 929. doi:1016/j.jtumed.2022.05.001
  45. Jane‐Llopis, E. V. A., & Matytsina, I. (2006). Mental health and alcohol, drugs and tobacco: a review of the comorbidity between mental disorders and the use of alcohol, tobacco and illicit drugs. Drug and alcohol review, 25(6), 515-536.  https://doi.org/10.1080/09595230600944461
  46. Karlsson, A., & Håkansson, A. (2022). Crime-specific recidivism in criminal justice clients with substance use—a cohort study. International journal of environmental research and public health, 19(13), 7623. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19137623
  47. Khalooei, A., Mashayekhi-Dowlatabad, M., Rajabalipour, M., & Iranpour, A. (2019). Factors Effective on Drug Abuse from the Male Inmates Point of View: Case Study of One of the Southeastern Prisons in Iran. Health and Development Journal, 8(1), 26-37. doi:22034/8.1.1.26
  48. Kinner, S. A., Milloy, M. J., Wood, E., Qi, J., Zhang, R., & Kerr, T. (2012). Incidence and risk factors for non-fatal overdose among a cohort of recently incarcerated illicit drug users. Addictive behaviors, 37(6), 691-696. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.01.019
  49. Lee, P. T., Kruse, G. R., Chan, B. T., Massaquoi, M. B., Panjabi, R. R., Dahn, B. T., & Gwenigale, W. T. (2011). An analysis of Liberia’s 2007 national health policy: lessons for health systems strengthening and chronic disease care in poor, post-conflict countries. Globalization and health, 7, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-8603-7-37
  50. Landberg, J., & Norström, T. (2011). Alcohol and homicide in Russia and the United States: a comparative analysis. Journal of studies on alcohol and drugs, 72(5), 723-730. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2011.72.723
  51. Leukefeld, C., Oser, C. B., Havens, J., Tindall, M. S., Mooney, J., Duvall, J., & Knudsen, H. (2009). Drug abuse treatment beyond prison walls. Addiction Science & Clinical Practice, 5(1), 24. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2749213/
  52. Link, N. W., & Hamilton, L. K. (2017). The reciprocal lagged effects of substance use and recidivism in a prisoner reentry context. Health & justice, 5, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40352-017-0053-2
  53. Lintonen, T. P., Vartiainen, H., Aarnio, J., Hakamäki, S., Viitanen, P., Wuolijoki, T., & Joukamaa, M. (2011). Drug use among inmates: by any definition, it’s a big problem. Substance use & misuse, 46(4), 440-451. https://substanceabusepolicy.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1747-597X-2-1
  54. Longato-Stadler, E., Knorring, L. V., & Hallman, J. (2002). Mental and personality disorders as well as personality traits in a Swedish male criminal population. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 56(2), 137-144. https://doi.org/10.1080/080394802753617962
  55. Lukasiewicz, M., Falissard, B., Michel, L., Neveu, X., Reynaud, M., & Gasquet, I. (2007). Prevalence and factors associated with alcohol and drug-related disorders in prison: a French national study. Substance abuse treatment, prevention, and policy, 2, 1-10. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/1747-597X-2-1
  56. Mallett, S., Rosenthal, D., & Keys, D. (2005). Young people, drug use and family conflict: Pathways into homelessness. Journal of adolescence, 28(2), 185-199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2005.02.002
  57. Marsiglia, F. F., Kulis, S., Parsai, M., Villar, P., & Garcia, C. (2009). Cohesion and conflict: Family influences on adolescent alcohol use in immigrant Latino families. Journal of ethnicity in substance abuse, 8(4), 400-412. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332640903327526
  58. Maruschak, L. M., Bronson, J., & Alper, M. (2021). Parents in prison and their minor children: Survey of prison inmates, 2016. US Department of Justice. https://www.ojp.gov/library/publications/parents-prison-and-their-minor-children-survey-prison-inmates-2016
  59. Moradi, G., Darvishi, S., Asaadi, L., Azimian Zavareh, F., Gouya, M. M., Tashakorian, M., … & Mohamadi Bolbanabad, A. (2020). Patterns of drug use and related factors among inmates in Iran: results from the national survey in 2015. The journal of primary prevention, 41, 29-38. doi:1007/s10935-019-00574-z
  60. Mendes, K. T., Ronzani, T. M., & de Paiva, F. S. (2019). Poverty, stigma, and drug use: Reflections about a perverse relation. Psychosocial Implications of Poverty: Diversities and Resistances, 77-89. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24292-3_6
  61. Mokdad, A. H., Marks, J. S., Stroup, D. F., & Gerberding, J. L. (2004). Actual causes of death in the United States, 2000. Jama, 291(10), 1238-1245. doi:1001/jama.291.10.1238
  62. Mooney, J. L., Minor, K. I., Wells, J. B., Leukefeld, C., Oser, C. B., & Staton Tindall, M. (2008). The relationship of stress, impulsivity, and beliefs to drug use severity in a sample of women prison inmates. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 52(6), 686-697. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X07309754
  63. Narevic, E., Garrity, T. F., Schoenberg, N. E., Hiller, M. L., Webster, J. M., Leukefeld, C. G., & Tindall, M. S. (2006). Factors predicting unmet health services needs among incarcerated substance users. Substance use & misuse, 41(8), 1077-1094. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826080600692167
  64. Nevárez-Sida, A., Constantino-Casas, P., & Castro-Ríos, A. (2012). Socioeconomic factors associated with drug consumption in prison population in Mexico. BMC Public Health, 12, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-33
  65. Neugebauer, R., Fisher, P. W., Turner, J. B., Yamabe, S., Sarsfield, J. A., & Stehling-Ariza, T. (2009). Post-traumatic stress reactions among Rwandan children and adolescents in the early aftermath of genocide. International journal of epidemiology, 38(4), 1033-1045. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyn375
  66. Nigel, S. M., Dudeck, M., Otte, S., Knauer, K., Klein, V., Böttcher, T., … & Streb, J. (2018). Psychopathy, the Big Five and empathy as predictors of violence in a forensic sample of substance abusers. The Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology, 29(6), 882-900. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789949.2018.1439993
  67. Nilsson, A. (2003). Living conditions, social exclusion and recidivism among prison inmates. Journal of Scandinavian studies in criminology and crime prevention, 4(1), 57-83. https://doi.org/10.1080/14043850310005321
  68. Nilsson, A., Estrada, F., & Bäckman, O. (2014). Offending, drug abuse and life chances—A longitudinal study of a Stockholm birth cohort. Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention, 15(2), 128-142. https://doi.org/10.1080/14043858.2014.939452
  69. Nochajski, T. H., Stasiewicz, P. R., & Patterson, D. A. (2013). Depression, readiness for change, and treatment among court-mandated DUI offenders. Journal of dual diagnosis, 9(2), 139-148. https://doi.org/10.1080/15504263.2013.779092
  70. Norman, C. (2023). A global review of prison drug smuggling routes and trends in the usage of drugs in prisons. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Forensic Science, 5(2), e1473. https://doi.org/10.1002/wfs2.1473
  71. Novisky, M. A., Nowotny, K. M., Jackson, D. B., Testa, A., & Vaughn, M. G. (2021). Incarceration as a fundamental social cause of health inequalities: Jails, prisons and vulnerability to COVID-19. The British Journal of Criminology, 61(6), 1630-1646. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjc/azab023
  72. Orpana, H., Giesbrecht, N., Hajee, A., & Kaplan, M. S. (2021). Alcohol and other drugs in suicide in Canada: opportunities to support prevention through enhanced monitoring. Injury prevention, 27(2), 194-200. https://injuryprevention.bmj.com/content/27/2/194.abstract
  73. Pankow, J., & Knight, K. (2012). Asociality and engagement in adult offenders in substance abuse treatment. Behavioral sciences & the law, 30(4), 371-383. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2020
  74. Park, S. S., & Kim, W. J. (2010). Effects of treatment program for drug abusers in prison. The Journal of the Korea Contents Association, 10(4), 348-358. https://doi.org/10.12934/jkpmhn.2017.26.1.1
  75. Peña-Orellana, M., Hernández-Viver, A., Caraballo-Correa, G., & Albizu-García, C. E. (2011). Prevalence of HCV risk behaviors among prison inmates: tattooing and injection drug use. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 22(3), 962. doi:1353/hpu.2011.0084
  76. Petruzzi, L. J., Pullen, S. J., Lange, B. C., Parnarouskis, L., Dominguez, S., Harris, B., … & Borba, C. P. (2018). Contributing risk factors for substance use among youth in postconflict Liberia. Qualitative health research, 28(12), 1827-1838. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732318761863
  77. Pompili, M., Serafini, G., Innamorati, M., Dominici, G., Ferracuti, S., Kotzalidis, G. D., … & Lester, D. (2010). Suicidal behavior and alcohol abuse. International journal of environmental research and public health, 7(4), 1392-1431.  https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph7041392
  78. Rada, C., & Ispas, A. T. (2016). Alcohol consumption and accentuated personality traits among young adults in Romania: a cross-sectional study. Substance abuse treatment, prevention, and policy, 11, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13011-016-0080-3
  79. Rada, C., Faludi, C., & Lungu, M. (2024). Emotional, coping factors and personality traits that influenced alcohol consumption in Romanian students during the COVID-19 pandemic. A cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 24(1), 733. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18247-w
  80. Rezaeisharif, A., Karimi, A., & Naeim, M. (2021). Effectiveness of the cognitive restructuring approach on irrational beliefs and hopelessness in individuals with a substance abuse disorder: A randomized controlled trial. Addictive Disorders & Their Treatment, 20(4), 326-335. https://doi.org/10.1097/ADT.0000000000000264
  81. Rhodes, T., Lilly, R., Fernández, C., Giorgino, E., Kemmesis, U. E., Ossebaard, H. C., … & Spannow, K. E. (2003). Risk factors associated with drug use: the importance of ‘risk environment’. Drugs: education, prevention and policy, 10(4), 303-329. https://doi.org/10.1080/0968763031000077733
  82. Rhodes, Tim. (2009). “Risk environments and drug harms: a social science for harm reduction approach.” International journal of drug policy20, no. 3: 193-201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2008.10.003
  83. Rehm, J., Shield, K. D., & Weiderpass, E. (2020). Alcohol consumption. A leading risk factor for cancer. Chemico-Biological Interactions, 331, 109280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbi.2020.109280
  84. Rodríguez Díaz, F. J., Bringas Molleda, C., Moral Jiménez, M. D. L. V., Pérez Sánchez, B., & Ovejero Bernal, A. (2013). Relationship between psychoactive substance use and family maltreatment: a prison population analysis. anales de psicología.
  85. Roy, A. (2003). Characteristics of drug addicts who attempt suicide. Psychiatry research, 121(1), 99-103. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-1781(03)00206-3
  86. Salvatore, T. (2013). Intoxicated Offenders and Suicide Threats: Is There a Connection?. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tony-Salvatore/publication/255711411
  87. Selby, C. (1990). Sex hormone binding globulin: origin, function and clinical significance. Annals of clinical biochemistry, 27(6), 532-541. https://doi.org/10.1177/000456329002700603
  88. Shannon, L. M., Jones, A. J., & Newell, J. (2019). Examining gender and factors associated with postprogram recidivism in a statewide drug court program. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 58(7), 592-613. https://doi.org/10.1080/10509674.2019.1635241
  89. Sher, L., Oquendo, M. A., Galfalvy, H. C., Grunebaum, M. F., Burke, A. K., Zalsman, G., & Mann, J. J. (2005). The relationship of aggression to suicidal behavior in depressed patients with a history of alcoholism. Addictive behaviors, 30(6), 1144-1153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2004.12.001
  90. Sher, L. (2006). Alcoholism and suicidal behavior: a clinical overview. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 113(1), 13-22.  https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2005.00643.x
  91. Siddiqui, S. A., Singh, P., Khan, S., Fernando, I., Baklanov, I. S., Ambartsumov, T. G., & Ibrahim, S. A. (2022). Cultural, social and psychological factors of the conservative consumer towards legal cannabis use—A review since 2013. Sustainability, 14(17), 10993. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141710993
  92. Spotts, J. V. & Shontz, F. C. (1984). Drugs and personality: Extraversion‐introversion. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 40(2), 624-628. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-4679
  93. Thomas, E., Degenhardt, L., Alati, R., & Kinner, S. (2014). Predictive validity of the AUDIT for hazardous alcohol consumption in recently released inmates. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 134, 322-329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.10.019
  94. Thompson, S. J. (2005). Risk/protective factors associated with substance use among runaway/homeless youth utilizing emergency shelter services nationwide. Substance Abuse, 25(3), 13-26. https://doi.org/10.1300/J465v25n03_02
  95. Tikkanen, R. (2009). Predictors of violent reconvictions and mortality among impulsive alcoholic violent offenders: A prospective study. https://helda.helsinki.fi/92b4d3df-8366-47de-8f80-20b2ad396fc0/content
  96. Turner, A. P., Larimer, M. E., & Sarason, I. G. (2000). Family risk factors for alcohol-related consequences and poor adjustment in fraternity and sorority members: exploring the role of parent-child conflict. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 61(6), 818-826. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsa.2000.61.818
  97. Værøy, H. (2011). Depression, anxiety, and history of substance abuse among Norwegian inmates in preventive detention: reasons to worry?. BMC psychiatry, 11, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-11-40
  98. Van Amsterdam, J. G., Ramaekers, J. G., Verkes, R. J., Kuypers, K. P., Goudriaan, A. E., & Van den Brink, W. (2020). Alcohol-and drug-related public violence in Europe. European journal of criminology, 17(6), 806-825. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477370819828324
  99. Vilcova, A. (2011). Abuzul de alcool ca problemă medico-socială in Republica Moldova. [Alcohol abuse as a medico-social problem in the Republic of Moldova] Analele Ştiinţifice ale USMF „N. Testemiţanu” [Scientific Annals of the University of Medicine and Pharmacy “N. Testemitanu”], 12(2), 334-340.
  100. Virkkunen, M., Kallio, E., Rawlings, R., Tokola, R., Poland, R. E., Guidotti, A., … & Linnoila, M. (1994). Personality profiles and state aggressiveness in Finnish alcoholic, violent offenders, fire setters, and healthy volunteers. Archives of general psychiatry, 51(1), 28-33. doi: 1001/archpsyc.1994.03950010028004
  101. Virkkunen, M., Goldman, D., & Linnoila, M. (2007). Serotonin in alcoholic violent offenders. In Ciba Foundation Symposium 194‐Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour: Genetics of Criminal and Antisocial Behaviour: Ciba Foundation Symposium 194(pp. 168-182). Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470514825.ch10
  102. von Sydow, K., Lieb, R., Pfister, H., Höfler, M., & Wittchen, H. U. (2002). What predicts incident use of cannabis and progression to abuse and dependence?: A 4-year prospective examination of risk factors in a community sample of adolescents and young adults. Drug and alcohol dependence, 68(1), 49-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0376-8716(02)00102-3
  103. Walker, D. L. (2020). Extraversion–introversion. The Wiley encyclopedia of personality and individual differences: Models and theories, 159-163. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119547143.ch28
  104. Webster, J. M., Dickson, M. F., Staton-Tindall, M., & Leukefeld, C. G. (2015). Predictors of recidivism among rural and urban drug-involved inmates. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 54(8), 539-555. https://doi.org/10.1080/10509674.2015.1087444
  105. Wiesner, M., Kim, H. K., & Capaldi, D. M. (2005). Developmental trajectories of offending: Validation and prediction to young adult alcohol use, drug use, and depressive symptoms. Development and psychopathology, 17(1), 251-270. doi:1017/s0954579405050133
  106. Wrigley, A., Dawson, A., Jonas, M., Haretuku, R., Vergès, C., Rodríguez, J., … & McDougall, C. W. (2016). Vulnerability and marginalized populations. Public Health Ethics: Cases Spanning the Globe, 203-240. https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/27734/1/1002271.pdf#page=225
  107. Yi, Y., Turney, K., & Wildeman, C. (2017). Mental health among jail and prison inmates. American journal of men’s health, 11(4), 900-909. https://doi.org/10.1177/155798831668133
  108. Yitayih, Y., Abera, M., Tesfaye, E., Mamaru, A., Soboka, M., & Adorjan, K. (2018). Substance use disorder and associated factors among inmates in a correctional institution in Jimma, Southwest Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study. BMC psychiatry, 18, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-018-1901-x
  109. Zampino, R., Coppola, N., Sagnelli, C., Di Caprio, G., & Sagnelli, E. (2015). Hepatitis C virus infection and inmates: epidemiology, outcome and treatment. World journal of hepatology, 7(21), 2323. doi: 4254/wjh.v7.i21.2323
  110. *** EMCDDA. (2023). European Drugs Report 2022: The Drug Situation in Europe, Retrieved March 20, 2024 from https://www.emcdda.europa.eu
  111. *** Eurostat. (2022). Frequency of alcohol consumption by gender, age and country of nationality, Retrieved August 12, 2024 from https://ec.europa.eu/
  112. ***World Health Organization. (2018). Global status report on alcohol and health 2018. Retrieved March 20, 2024 from https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241565639
PDF
HTML
Scroll to Top