SPECIFIC PERSONALITY TRAITS OF INMATES WHO HAVE COMMITTED VIOLENT AND SEXUAL OFFENSES

DOI: https://doi.org/10.26758/15.1.11

All authors of the article have contributed equally.

(1) National Administration of Penitentiaries, Directorate of Social Reintegration, e-mail miana@yahoo.com

(2) National Correctional Officers Training School Târgu Ocna, Department of Law, Social Sciences and Humanities; e-mail: ciurbeaflavia@gmail.com

(3) Romanian National Anti-drug Agency, Obregia Integrated Addiction Assistance Program; e-mail: robertlunga95@gmail.com

(4) “Francisc I. Rainer” Anthropology Institute, Romanian Academy; e-mail: corneliarada@yahoo.com

Address correspondence to: Maria – Miana DINA, National Administration of Penitentiaries, Directorate of Social Reintegration, Calea Floreasca, No.39, 1th Distinct, Bucharest, 023761, Romania. Ph.: +40744869 005; E-mail: grebenar.miana@yahoo.com

Abstract

Objective. This study analyzed the personality traits that may characterize offenders convicted of rape and violent acts.

Material and methods.  The study involved 850 incarcerated individuals, permanently sentenced and detained within the National Penitentiary Administration of Romania. Participants were aged between 21 and 71 years (MD = 38.7), with 3% being female. The CP5F Personality Questionnaire and a thematic omnibus questionnaire were applied.

Results. The analysis revealed that the prisoners who committed a violent act had statistically significantly higher scores on the Extraversion scales (M = 72.14, SD = 11.43; M =70.24, SD =9.58), t(848) = 8.47, p < .05., Emotional Stability (M = 80.22, SD = 10.96; M =77.76, SD =10.82), t(848) = .51, p < .005, and Autonomy (M = 76.12, SD = 9.49; M =74.56, SD =8.25), t(848) = 7.15, p < .05, than the non-violent ones. Prisoners who committed the crime of rape have lower scores on Conscientiousness (M = 99.7783), Emotional Stability (M = 76.6179), and Autonomy (M = 74.0189) compared to those who committed crimes in other categories.

Conclusions. The entire sample is characterized by low levels of Emotional Stability and Autonomy. Violent offenders were specifically characterized by lower levels of Extraversion, while rape offenders displayed notably lower levels of Conscientiousness. The present study suggests that there is an urgent need for specialized interventions by considering the psychological aspects that characterize the type of crime committed.

Keywords: personality traits, prisoner, crime, violence, rape.

Suggested citation (APA)

Dina, M.M., Ciurbea, F.E., Lunga, R. A., & Rada, C. (2025). Specific personality traits of inmates who have committed violent and sexual offenses. Anthropological Researches and Studies, 15, 174-187. https://doi.org/10.26758/15.1.11

Introduction

The alarming rise in criminal and violent behavior in recent years has become a significant global concern. From Eastern Europe to the remote regions of Latin America, the intensification of the violent crime is becoming a major obstacle in the way to the development and the maintaining of the global stability (Miller, 2016). The concern about crime is fully justified, given the devastating impact it can have on the economy and, especially, on the quality of life of those who live in fear that their personal security and property are threatened (Coccia, 2017). Considering that the most serious crime against personal safety, according to statistics provided by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2022), the most widespread international crime is in the Americas, with a threshold of 15 per 100,000 inhabitants, 81% of the victims being men. In contrast, in Europe the proportion of female victims is higher, as relationship crimes and domestic violence predominate, with women being more likely to be assaulted. It is essential to highlight that, of all the violent crimes, sexual assault stands out for the highest percentage in terms of the severity of suffering experienced by victims. This is not just a cold statistic, it is a disturbing reality that requires special attention (Department of Justice Socio-emotional Impact of Violent Crime, 2023). Approximately a quarter of women who were victims of rape think about suicide, and 13% of them try to implement the morbid ideation (National Sexual Assault Hotline, 2023).

In Romania, according to data from the “National Strategy for Public Order and Security 2023 – 2027”, in 2022 alone, over 100,000 cases were assault or other violent crimes, domestic violence increased by 56% compared to the previous five years, and sexual crimes increased by 14.46% compared to the previous year (Official Gazette of Romania, 2023). The most recent data indicate that in the first four months of 2024 the number of criminal acts in the field of domestic violence increased by 3.5% compared to the first 4 months of 2023, from 17,792 to 18,410 acts. Regarding the sexual crimes, in the first semester of 2024, over 15,000 reports were being processed, the phenomenon experiencing an upward trend (General Inspectorate of the Romanian Police, 2024).

Regarding a possible explanation of the criminal behavior, there are studies that consider that personality traits are involved in the etiology and the maintenance of criminal behaviors. Such traits are called stable dynamic factors, that is those psychosocial characteristics of the aggressor that remain constant over time (Kamaluddin, Shariff, Othman, Ismail, & Saat, 2015). As mentioned by Beaver and colleagues (2017), the concept of personality is related to the stability with which individuals manifest their thoughts, emotions, and actions. Several authors (Craft, 2013; Hicks et al., 2012; Orue, Calvete, & Gamez-Guadix, 2016) have stated that personality traits are as important as the environmental factor in explaining the criminal and the antisocial behavior in an individual. Therefore, the understanding of the psychological traits and their relationship to criminal behavior is essential for preventing illegal acts and promoting a healthier society.

This research not only that it broadens the horizons but also provides an opportunity to understand how fundamental it is to cultivate healthy psychological traits.

Material and methods

The specific objectives of this research were as follows:

O1. To identify personality traits characteristic of inmates who have committed violent crimes.

O2. To identify personality traits specific to inmates who have committed sexual crimes.

O3. To identify personality traits common to violent and sexual crimes.

Research hypotheses

H1. There are differences in the specific personality traits between the category of prisoners who committed violent/non-violent offenses.

H2. Prisoners who committed sexual offenses are characterized by personality traits other than the men who did not commit this criminal acts of this category.

H3. There are common criminal personality traits for sexual offenders and violent offenders.

Sample

This study involved 850 incarcerated individuals, definitively convicted and detained within the National Penitentiary Administration of Romania. Participants were drawn from nine detention facilities (Penitentiary institutions: Arad, Bistriţa, Botoşani, Constanţa Poarta – Albă, Craiova, Mărgineni, Ploieşti, Turnu Severin, Vaslui). The age of the participants ranged between 21 – 71 years (MD = 38.7), 3% of the participants being women.

Descriptive statistics for each criminal category are presented in Table 1.

Table 1.

The basic structure of the sample (to see Table 1, please click here)

Description of the tools used

A thematic omnibus questionnaire was applied through which the socio-demographic and legal aspects were collected, as well as the CP5F Personality Questionnaire. It is used in various fields, including the clinical psychology, human resources, and the personal development, in order to help understand the behavior and the interpersonal relationships. The results may provide some valuable information about how individuals behave in different situations and how they interact with the others. The questionnaire was used with the agreement of Cognitrom for research purposes.

The scales are described below according to the authors of the questionnaire (Albu, 2008).

Extraversion scale. A high score indicates that the individual enjoys being at the center of activity, feels comfortable in social settings, participates in entertaining activities, and easily forms connections with others. On the other hand, a low score suggests a preference for solitude, a reserved nature, an inclination to avoid crowds, and limited self-expression.

Agreeableness scale. A high score on this scale indicates a person who shows empathy and concern for the others, respects the opinions and needs of those around him and seeks harmony. In contrast, a low score reflects a selfish attitude, where the individual seems more concerned with himself and wants to be the center of attention, ruthlessly imposing his point of view.

Conscientiousness scale. A high score signifies an organized and disciplined individual who adheres to rules and meticulously organizes his activities. On the other hand, a low score suggests a nonconformist approach, where impulsiveness and lack of planning are common, and the person acts without considering consequences.

Emotional stability. High scores imply positive thinking, an optimistic attitude and the ability to control one’s emotions, having confidence in one’s own strengths. On the contrary, a low score reveals a person who constantly worries, lives under the pressure of anxiety, and can lose control in moments of stress.

Autonomy scale. A high score in this area suggests a creative personality, who can act differently from others, driven by one’s own vision, without being influenced by the commands of others. A low score suggests that the individual does not express his own beliefs but submits without hesitation to what others say.

Data collection strategy

By address number 253715/23.09.2021, the approval was obtained from the management of the National Penitentiary Administration in order to carry out the data collection stage for the purpose of preparing the aforementioned study. This document included, on the one hand, the compliance with the professional ethics standards in scientific research, and on the other hand, analyzed the application method used.

Printed questionnaires were distributed to participants who agreed to participate. It was clearly stated that if someone decides to refuse, there will be no negative consequences. Participants were also informed that they have the right to withdraw from the study at any time.

Data confidentiality and anonymity of participants

All information collected were used completely anonymously, exclusively for scientific purposes. This approach strictly complies with Regulation no. 679/2016 of the European Parliament and of the Council of the European Union, a framework designed to protect the privacy of the individual in the face of the continuous flow of personal data, as well as Law no. 129/2018, amending and supplementing Law no. 102/2005 on the establishment, organization and functioning of the National Supervisory Authority for the Processing of Personal Data, and repealing Law no. 677/2001 on the protection of individuals with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data (European Commission, n.d).

Results

Results 1

The involvement of personality traits in violent crimes

For the first analysis of the study (violent/non-violent crimes), the sample was divided into two approximately equal categories.

According to the descriptive statistical analysis, the mean scores for the two groups of crimes (violent and non-violent) differ for the Extraversion, Emotional Stability, and Autonomy scales (Table 2). For the Social Desire, Conscientiousness, and Agreeableness scales, the scores are approximately equal.

Table 2

Average scores for violent/non-violent crime groups (to see Table 2, please click here)

The two groups were compared using the independent samples T-test. The analysis revealed that prisoners who committed a violent act had statistically significantly lower scores on the Extraversion scales (M = 72.14, SD = 11.43; M =70.24, SD =9.58), t(848) = 8.47, p < .05., Emotional Stability (M = 80.22, SD = 10.96; M =77.76, SD =10.82), t(848) = .51, p < .005. and Autonomy (M = 76.12, SD = 9.49; M =74.56, SD =8.25), t(848) = 7.15, p < .05. The results can be seen in Table 3.

Table 3

Analysis of T-Test scores for independent samples, crimes committed with/without violence (to see Table 3, please click here)

As a result of the fact that the sample did not have a normal distribution, the procedure of using the T-test with the Bootstrap method was resumed to identify whether the statistical significance was correct. It is observed that the statistical significance is maintained for the Extraversion, Emotional Stability, and Autonomy scales, p < 0.05.

The effect of the dimensions of extraversion, emotional stability, and autonomy on crimes (violent/nonviolent) remains moderate even after applying the bootstrap method. The results can be observed in Tables 4 and 5.

Table 4

Bootstrap method for checking statistical significance (to see Table 4, please click here)

Table 5

Effect analysis (to see Table 5, please click here)

Results 2

The involvement of personality traits in the crime of rape

The sample did not have a normal distribution. As a result, the T-test for independent samples using the Bootstrap method was used. Statistically significant differences were found between the crime of rape and the other crimes in the personality dimensions of Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Autonomy, p < 0.05.

Table 6

Average scores for the two rape/other crime groups ( to see Table 6, please click here)

According to the data analysis, those who committed the crime of rape have lower scores on Conscientiousness (M = 99.7783), Emotional Stability (M = 76.6179) and Autonomy (M = 74.0189) compared to those who committed crimes in the other categories where higher average scores were recorded (Conscientiousness M = 102.3025, Emotional Stability M = 79.6944, Autonomy M = 75.7367).

Table 7

Differences in average scores for the two rape/other crime groups (to see Table 7, please click here)

In the table below it is noticed that these effects on the type of crime (rape/other crimes) are moderate in size (Conscientiousness – .185, Emotional Stability – .283, Autonomy -.194).

Table 8.

The effect of the dimensions Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, Autonomy on rape crimes compared to the other crimes category (to see Table 8, please click here)

Discussions

Extraversion

The present study identified that a low level of Extraversion is characteristic of prisoners who have committed violent crimes. This finding is in line with the research that has analyzed the etiology of the violent crimes and stated that the personality traits can significantly predict violent crimes (Bucolo, 2010; Tharshini, Ibrahim, Kamaluddin, Rathakrishnan, & Che Mohd Nasir, 2021; Beaver et al., 2017). The present study supports the personality theory constructed by Eysenck (apud Revelle, 2016) which proposes a significant relationship between the criminal behavior and the personality variables, namely Extraversion. The author described the criminal behavior as a developmental delay, as the offender is described as a selfish individual oriented towards the instant gratification. This aspect is opposite to socialization, because in the socialization process children learn to delay gratification and to be more oriented towards the interest of society rather than just selfish interests (apud Revelle, 2016). Therefore, a possible explanation of the manifestation of violence may also refer to this theory. A low Extraversion score affects the ability to postpone the satisfaction of needs, thus increasing the risk of violent behavior.

Other studies that obtained similar results have pointed out that people who have high scores on the Extraversion scale are characterized as being socially active, talkative and in search of adventures and new experiences. Low scores indicate a low level of arousal, so more stimulation from the environment is needed (Cauffman, Monahan, & Thomas, 2015; Curnoe & Langevin, 2002).

On the other hand, Shimotsukasaa et al. (2019) in a study of 645 inmates from 77 prisons in Japan found conflicting data. According to them, offenders convicted of violent offenses scored higher on the Extraversion scale than controls. Similarly, Edwards, Albertson, and Verona (2017) found that low Extraversion scores did not correlate with violent offenses.

Emotional stability

Regarding the emotional stability, the present analysis highlighted that a low score is significant for both non-violent and violent crimes.

Similar findings are found in a wide range of studies that have concluded that low self-control is a predictor of various maladaptive behaviors, such as involvement in substance abuse, theft and robbery, and especially in those of a violent and sexual nature (Edwards, Albertson, & Verona, 2017; Traynham, Kelley, Long, & Britt, 2019; Boccio & Beaver 2018; Miller, 2016).

Also, similar to the present study, in one of its meta-analyses related to personality and antisocial behavior, Traynham et al. (2019) concluded that individuals who commit violent crimes have difficulties in controlling their impulses. In addition, they found that, compared to non-offenders, individuals who commit crimes are less sociable, more aggressive, and more sensation-seeking.

Other authors who support the previous idea have outlined a rather worrying picture: low self-control seems to be a factor that regularly recurs among those involved in illicit activities. Empirical evidence suggests that this type of deficient self-control is closely linked to delinquent, violent, and antisocial behaviors (Forrest, Hay, Widdowson, & Rocque, 2019; Tornquist & Miles, 2019).

Boccio and Beaver (2018) not only attest to the fact that violent offenders and those involved in sexual/criminal activities have low self-control, but moreover, they consider that they are characterized by increased impulsivity, excessive attention to themselves, plus an obvious attraction to risky and irresponsible actions, all of which are accompanied by a rather volatile temperament. Therefore, a possible explanation may be that low self-control increases the likelihood that an individual will engage in criminal activities when presented with appropriate opportunities, mainly because they are unable to ignore or anticipate the potential long-term consequences of their actions.

Complementing this study are the data obtained by Stifter and Dollar (2016). The authors stated that individuals with low self-control are less concerned with the long-term consequences of their behavior and are more likely to engage in activities that provide them with immediate gratification. Kamaluddin et al. (2020) support these results, stating that this need for immediate gratification also explains sexual crimes, with rape being a result of a lack of control.

Autonomy

Regarding autonomy, the data analysis showed a significantly low level for both non-violent and rape offenses, indicating a low capacity to make one’s own decisions.

Similarly, Craig, Browne, Beech, & Stringer (2006) reported that sex offenders tended to be more passive, submissive, and lacking initiative than other groups of offenders. Hildebrandt (2011) also suggests that violent offenders have a low level of autonomy and that personality traits, such as impulsivity, narcissism, or lack of empathy, may influence the degree of autonomy they display. These traits may lead to an exaggerated perception of their own ability to control situations, which may contribute to illegal behaviors.

There are also contradictory results. For example, van Prooijen and Kerpershoek (2013) found that offenders may exhibit a greater degree of autonomy in making decisions that lead to illegal behaviors. This may be related to a distorted perception of the consequences of their actions, but also to an ability to justify their deviant behaviors. At the same time, Green (2002) considers delinquents as rational agents who weigh the costs and benefits of their actions. This approach emphasizes individual autonomy in the decision-making process, suggesting that delinquents choose to commit crimes when they believe that the benefits outweigh the risks. In conclusion, although autonomy is a personality trait, it is important to consider external influences, such as the social environment, family, education and economic conditions. Delinquents may have an increased sense of autonomy in contexts in which they have been exposed to patterns of deviant behavior or to a lack of social support (Mackor, 2012).

Conscientiousness

Low conscientiousness has been identified as the personality trait specifically associated with rape.

Numerous studies support these findings. For example, both Dennison, Stough, and Birgden (2001) and Daspe et al. (2017) found that convicted and incarcerated sex offenders scored significantly lower on extraversion and conscientiousness compared to non-offenders. Similarly, a study by Voller and Long (2010) with a sample of male college students found that rape perpetrators had lower levels of agreeableness, extraversion, and conscientiousness than those who were not perpetrators. Therefore, according to the authors, Conscientiousness may be a key factor characterizing sex offenders. The most obvious reasons for this finding seem to be the inability to delay sexual gratification and the difficulty in foreseeing the consequences of behavior before acting.

At the same time, there is research that shows that those who have a low level of conscientiousness are more prone to infidelity and promiscuous sexual behavior (Buss & Shackelford, 1997; Schmitt, 2004). Seen as a model of irresponsibility (low level of Conscientiousness), negligence, lack of self-discipline or difficulties in achieving goals (Costa & McCrae, 1992), it can influence individuals in terms of sexual aggression, being related to promiscuous behaviors and a rather aggressive form of masculinity (Dean & Malamuth, 1997).

In terms of child sexual abuse, there is evidence that low conscientiousness is closely linked to emotional and behavioral imbalance, which are factors that negatively influence the ability to control actions (Boillat et al., 2017; Garofalo, Bogaerts, & Denissen, 2018; Miller, 2015). Boillat et al. (2017) also found that personality traits appear to be among the most important factors contributing to involvement in child sexual abuse. In this light, the data obtained on core personality traits support the theory of sexual offenses and research on recidivism, emphasizing how disinhibition plays a crucial role in the emergence and perpetuation of deviant behaviors (Hanson & Morton-Bourgon, 2019; Seto, 2019).

Conclusions

Considering the first objective of the study, identifying personality traits characteristic of prisoners who have committed violent crimes, according to the data analysis, they are characterized in terms of personality traits by low scores on Extraversion, Emotional Stability, and Autonomy. Therefore, they can be described as people who often experience difficulties in socializing and expressing themselves, can easily lose control in moments of stress, and, therefore, it is quite difficult for them to present their ideas. The specific trait of prisoners who have committed violent crimes is the low level of Extraversion.

For the second objective, revealing personality traits specific to prisoners who have committed sexual crimes, the results indicated low scores on Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Autonomy. Therefore, they can be described as people who do not usually plan their activities, act without thinking about the consequences, worry constantly, and comply with others’ instructions without hesitation what others say. Low conscientiousness was identified as the specific trait for the crime of rape.

Regarding the last objective of the study, identifying the personality traits common to crimes committed with violence and those of a sexual nature, the statistical analysis revealed that commonalities include low levels of Emotional Stability and Autonomy.

The strength of the influence of personality dimensions in the criminal process is lower than the authors of the present study expected, probably due to other factors being involved. However, two personality traits emerged as relevant in differentiating the characteristics of offenders who committed violent and sexual offenses, namely low levels of Extraversion in violent crimes and Conscientiousness in sexual abuse. In conclusion, the present study suggests that there is an urgent need for specialized interventions and awareness campaigns to address these behaviors, not only during the execution of the custodial sentence but also during the period of crime prevention. It is also essential that the criminal process be planned by considering the psychological aspects that characterize the crime committed.

Limits and future directions

The main limitation of the study is that it is based on self-reporting. At the same time, carrying out the study in a stressful, restrictive environment could have altered the honesty of the responses through prestige reactions towards the prison staff.

However, this rather large sample size as well as the good internal consistency, comparable to that of the validation sample on the normal population, indicate the existence of a personality specificity depending on the crime which has been committed.

A future direction necessary for reducing recidivism is the psychoeducational intervention within prisons in order to increase emotional stability.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Consent to participate

Informed written consent was obtained from each participant at the time of recruitment. The subjects were informed that they could withdraw from the study at any stage, and they were assured of confidentiality.

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