Doi: https://doi.org/10.26758/16.1.37
(1) Doctoral School of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: alexandra.rosu43@drd.unibuc.ro, https://orcid.org/0009-0005-9130-0563
(2) Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania, e-mail: georgeta.panisoara@fpse.unibuc.ro, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9479-6182
Address correspondence to: Georgeta Pânișoară, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Bucharest, 90, Panduri Avenue, 050653 Bucharest, Romania; phone: +40745032500 e-mail: georgeta.panisoara@fpse.unibuc.ro
Abstract
Objectives. This study aimed to explore the relationships between parental competence, the cognitive triad, children’s autonomy, and resilience, considering the impact of the “helicopter” parenting style as a moderating factor.
Material and methods. Data were collected using a set of instruments distributed via Google Forms and completed by parents of primary school children from both rural and urban areas. The Cognitive Triad Inventory for Children, the Parenting Sense of Competence Scale, the Parental Autonomy Support Scale, the Helicopter Parenting Inventory, and the Child and Youth Resilience Measure were used. The sample consisted of 511 parents.
Results. The study’s results confirm the hypotheses. Pearson’s analysis indicates a significant positive correlation between the cognitive triad and resilience (r = .466, p < .001). Additionally, parental competence acts as a significant moderator in this relationship (β = -.0066, SE = .0031, t = -2.11, p = .036), suggesting that the impact of the cognitive triad on resilience is less pronounced in the presence of a high level of parental competence. In contrast, parental competence is a negative predictor of children’s autonomy (β = -.097, p = .028), and this effect is amplified by helicopter parenting (β = -.0040, p < .001). The regression models explain between 7.3% and 8.86% of the variance in the dependent variables, confirming the statistical validity of the results.
Conclusions. The conclusions emphasize the importance of interventions that support parents in promoting a balanced parenting style, reducing overprotective behaviors. The results have implications for the development of parental support programs and psychoeducational interventions.
Keywords: cognitive triad, parental competence, autonomy, resilience, helicopter parenting
Suggested citation (APA):
Olteanu, A. M., & Pânișoară, G. (2026). Study on the relationship between the cognitive triad, autonomy, and resilience in children: The impact of parental competence and helicopter parenting. Anthropological Researches and Studies, 16, 584-597. https://doi.org/10.26758/16.1.37
Introduction
Children’s adaptation to life conditions and the transition to adulthood represent fundamental aspects of developmental psychology, directly influencing their ability to cope with environmental challenges. An essential factor in this process is the development of autonomy, which allows children to build self-regulation skills, decision-making abilities, and responsibility-taking. These competences contribute both to social integration and to their emotional and cognitive balance.
In this context, the cognitive triad, autonomy, and resilience represent key variables in the adaptation process. Although the literature has separately analyzed these concepts, there is a pressing need for studies that integrate them and explore how parental competence and helicopter parenting simultaneously influence the development of children’s thinking, autonomy, and resilience.
The cognitive triad
Many researchers have studied and contributed to the literature on the cognitive triad and its implications for children’s lives (Kaslow et al., 1992; Stark et al., 1996). In recent years, the incidence of emotional disorders among children, such as depression and anxiety, has increased (Dalsgaard et al., 2020). An important explanatory model for these problems is the cognitive triad, proposed by Beck (1973), which suggests that depression stems from a negative view of the self, the world, and the future. These distorted beliefs directly influence self-esteem (Karoly & Ruehlman, 1983), social relationships, and perceptions about the future, and Zauszniewski (1999) links them to feelings of helplessness and hopelessness.
Beck (1973) identifies three main factors contributing to negative emotions: faulty information processing (logical errors), the negative cognitive triad (negative thinking about the world, self, and future), and negative self-schemas. Jere et al. (2021) highlight the importance of the critical evaluation of these elements, while Alloy et al. (1999) suggest that analyzing emotions can help in understanding and shaping the cognitive triad.
The cognitive triad influences how a person perceives themselves, interprets the environment, and imagines the future. Individuals affected by a negative cognitive triad see themselves as inadequate, perceive the world as hostile, and believe that difficulties will persist. Although this model was initially developed for adults, it is also relevant for children, having a significant impact on their emotional development and resilience (Mehta et al., 2019).
Studies conducted by Kaslow et al. (1992) and Stark et al. (1996) showed that the negative cognitive triad can be present as early as childhood and is correlated with depressive symptoms similar to those observed in adults. Furthermore, research suggests that maternal perceptions play a key role in the formation of the cognitive triad in children, indicating a close link between family interactions and the child’s cognitive development (Stark et al., 1996).
Studies have shown that the negative cognitive triad is positively correlated with depressive symptoms in youth (Braet et al., 2015; Cole et al., 2011). There is also evidence suggesting that it may be a predictive factor for the onset of depressive symptoms during adolescence (Greening et al., 2005; Timbremont & Braet, 2006).
Recent studies have explored the relationships between the cognitive triad, autonomy, and resilience in children and adolescents. For example, research indicates that a positive triad, characterized by optimistic views of the self, the world, and the future, can enhance resilience and the overall well-being of youth (Mehta et al., 2019). Likewise, the positive cognitive triad protects the mental health of adolescents and adults (Pittard et al., 2021). Thomson (2019) argues that despite the recent rise of positive approaches in psychological research (Shean, 2015), the exploration of the positive aspects of the cognitive triad remains limited.
Parental Competence versus Helicopter Parenting
A key factor in children’s emotional development is parental competence, which refers to the practical ability of parents to care for, educate, and protect their children, ensuring their balanced development (Reparaz et al., 2021; Gordo et al., 2020). Therefore, it is defined as a behavior that involves adequate responses to children’s needs in order to ensure their healthy development (Garaigordobil & Machimbarrena, 2017; Lopes & Dixe, 2012). Parents with a high level of parental competence are more likely to adopt educational strategies that support the development of children’s autonomy and resilience (Ziv et al., 2020).
Research shows that the active involvement of family members in children’s education is associated with improved academic performance and positive socio-emotional functioning (Fantuzzo et al., 2006; Jeynes, 2007).
Moreover, studies conducted by Mageau et al. (2015) suggest that three key parental components are essential for children’s harmonious development: acceptance versus parental rejection, structure versus permissiveness, and support for autonomy versus excessive parental control. These dimensions appear to play a significant role in predicting positive child outcomes.
In contrast, the lack of parental competence can lead to the adoption of inefficient parenting styles, among which is helicopter parenting. This style is characterized by overprotection and excessive control (LeMoyne & Buchanan, 2011; Padilla-Walker & Nelson, 2012; Schiffrin et al., 2019). A study conducted on a sample of over 3,600 Americans suggests that child-centered parenting, which requires considerable time, has become a cultural norm, spreading across various social classes (Ishizuka, 2019).
Research shows that the helicopter parenting style has a significant impact on children’s development, negatively affecting autonomy, resilience, self-confidence, and social and academic adaptability (Padilla-Walker & Nelson, 2012; Darlow et al., 2017; Dorrance Hall et al., 2021). Helicopter parents limit children’s independence, which may lead to difficulties in decision-making and in coping with life challenges (Ungar, 2009; Hamill, 2003).
Children’s Autonomy and Resilience
An important aspect of the parent-child relationship is the support provided for the development of autonomy. In early childhood, parents support children’s autonomy through behaviors that encourage independence in decision-making, problem-solving, and guiding actions based on personal interests (Deci & Ryan, 2000). The development of autonomy is essential for psychological health and is closely related to parenting styles. Parents who support their child’s autonomy by providing emotional support as well as setting clear boundaries contribute to increased self-esteem and an improved ability to adapt to life challenges (Ziv et al., 2020).
Resilience, defined as the ability to overcome adversity and adapt to stressful situations (Norman, 2000), is another aspect influenced by parenting styles. Studies suggest that a supportive family environment, characterized by affection, open communication, and clear rules, promotes the development of this ability (Gamble & Roberts, 2005). In contrast, critical parents or those who impose perfectionist standards may negatively affect children’s ability to develop effective coping mechanisms, which can lead to cognitive vulnerabilities, including susceptibility to depression (Ingram et al., 2001).
In conclusion, the present study explores the relationship between the cognitive triad, children’s autonomy, and resilience, emphasizing the impact of parental competence and helicopter parenting. In light of the existing literature, analyzing these relationships is essential for understanding the factors that contribute to healthy child development and for identifying effective educational strategies or preventing cognitive vulnerabilities related to depression and anxiety in children.
Methodology
Objectives and Hypotheses
The main aim of this study is to explore the relationships among parental competence, the cognitive triad, children’s autonomy, and resilience, taking into account the impact of the “helicopter” parenting style as a moderating factor. Through this approach, the study offers an integrated perspective on the way in which parents influence the psychological and behavioral development of children. Within this endeavor, the following objectives and hypotheses were established:
O1. Investigating the relationship between children’s cognitive triad (view of the self, the world, and the future) and their level of resilience.
This objective aims to highlight the link between the cognitive triad and children’s capacity to cope with challenges, defined as resilience. In this context, the hypothesis tested is:
H1: There is a positive correlation between the cognitive triad and the resilience level of children.
O2. Analyzing the moderating role of parental competence in the relationship between the cognitive triad and children’s resilience.
This objective examines the extent to which parental competence influences the link between the cognitive triad and the resilience level of children. The corresponding hypothesis is:
H2: Parental competence moderates the relationship between children’s cognitive triad and their resilience.
O3. Investigating the impact of parental competence on children’s level of autonomy.
This objective aims to determine the extent to which parents’ perception of their own competence influences their children’s level of autonomy. The hypothesis derived from this objective is:
H3: Parental competence (efficacy and satisfaction) is a significant predictor of children’s autonomy.
O4. Analyzing the role of “helicopter” parenting in moderating the relationship between parental competence and children’s autonomy.
This objective explores whether and how a hyperprotective parenting style, known as “helicopter” parenting, affects the relationship between parental competence and children’s autonomy. Accordingly, the hypothesis formulated is:
H4: Helicopter parenting moderates the relationship between parental competence and children’s autonomy.
Instruments
The Cognitive Triad Inventory for Children (CTI-C)
This scale was developed by Kaslow et al. (1992) and includes 36 items organized into three subscales: View of the Self, View of the World, and View of the Future. The aim of the scale is to assess how children perceive themselves, their surrounding environment, and their expectations for the future. It can be used in clinical, educational, or research settings to better understand children’s cognitive processes.
Response options are: “Yes” (3 points), “Maybe” (2 points), or “No” (1 point). Each subscale contains items measuring both positive and negative cognitions. The scoring method involves reversing the scores for items that measure negative cognitions, after which a total score is calculated. A lower score indicates a negative cognitive triad, while a higher score reflects a positive cognitive triad.
Sample items include: “My child does well in many different areas,” “For my child, most school activities are not fun,” and “My child enjoys thinking about the good things that will happen in the future.”
The CTI-C scale has demonstrated high internal consistency (α = .90).
Parenting Sense of Competence Scale (PSOC)
Developed by Gibaud-Wallston in 1978, this scale includes 17 items divided into two subscales: Parental Efficacy (evaluating parents’ beliefs regarding their ability to manage the parental role and face related challenges) and Parental Satisfaction (measuring the level of satisfaction and fulfillment experienced by parents in their role). Each item is rated on a 6-point Likert scale, from 1 = “Strongly disagree” to 6 = “Strongly agree.” Nine items (2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 12, 14, and 16) are reverse scored.
Sample items include: “I honestly believe I have all the skills necessary to be a good parent to my child,” and “Being a parent makes me feel tense and anxious.”
The scale has shown good psychometric properties, with internal consistency coefficients ranging from α = .73 to α = .79, indicating adequate reliability.
Helicopter Parenting Instrument – Short Form (HPI-S)
The short questionnaire for assessing helicopter parenting (HPI-S; Pistella et al., 2020) comprises 10 items rated on a 7-point Likert scale, from 1 = “Strongly disagree” to 7 = “Strongly agree.”
Sample items include: “As a parent, I sometimes invest more time and energy in my child’s projects than they do,” and “I consider myself a bad parent when I don’t intervene and ‘rescue’ my child from difficulties.”
The instrument has adequate internal consistency (α = .79).
Perceived Parental Autonomy Support Scale (P-PASS)
This scale, developed by Mageau et al. (2015), assesses the extent to which parents support their children’s autonomy and their tendencies toward control, using a multidimensional approach. It includes 24 items measured on a 7-point Likert scale, from 1 = “Strongly disagree” to 7 = “Strongly agree.”
Sample items include: “My child’s point of view is very important when I make important decisions regarding them,” and “As a parent, I provide many opportunities for my child to make their own decisions about what they do.”
The scale allows for the calculation of a total score (α = .89), indicating high internal consistency.
Child and Youth Resilience Measure – 12 (CYRM-12)
Developed by Ungar and Liebenberg (2009), this scale is used to assess resilience across different cultures and contexts. All items are rated on a 5-point scale, from 1 = “Strongly disagree” to 5 = “Strongly agree,” with higher scores indicating a greater presence of resilience processes.
Sample items include: “My child usually finishes what they start,” and “My child knows who to go to for help.”
The internal consistency coefficient is α = .74.
Participants
The study sample comprises 511 parents (86.3% female and 13.7% male). Of these, 50.3% are aged between 41–50 years, 40.7% are between 31–40 years, 6.8% are over 50 years old, and the remainder are under 30 years of age. A total of 91% reside in urban areas, and 9% in rural areas.
Regarding marital status, 82.2% of participants are married, 9.4% are divorced, 3.7% are in a cohabiting relationship, 2.3% are unmarried, 1.4% are separated, and 1% are widowed.
As for educational level, 47.4% hold a university degree, 38% have postgraduate education, 9.6% completed high school, 4.1% have post-secondary education, and 1% completed only middle school.
Regarding the gender of the child for whom responses to the test battery items were provided, 53% are parents of boys and 47% are parents of girls. Parents provided information about their children attending primary school. The distribution shows that 14.5% of the children are in the preparatory grade, 22.1% in the first grade, 9.4% in the second grade, 14.5% in the third grade, and 39.5% in the fourth grade. A higher representation of students in the final years of primary education is observed, particularly in the fourth grade, which includes the largest proportion of children.
Table 1
Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Parents and Children (to see Table 1, please click here)
Procedure
The study employed convenience sampling, selecting participants based on their accessibility and availability. Additionally, snowball sampling was applied. In the first stage, eligible participants were identified, and in the second stage, they were asked to recommend other individuals who met the inclusion criteria.
Data were collected between April and June 2024 through a set of instruments distributed via Google Forms and completed by the parents. This method allowed for efficient data collection and access to a diverse sample from various geographical areas.
Results
Hypotheses testing and interpretation of results
Testing research hypothesis 1. There is a positive correlation between children’s cognitive triad and their level of resilience.
The cognitive triad in our sample of children is characterized by a predominantly positive orientation, given the high mean score (M = 96.35), close to the theoretical maximum of 108. Regarding resilience, it correlates positively and significantly with the cognitive triad (r = .466, p < .001), though with moderate strength. Each dimension of the cognitive triad also shows positive and statistically significant correlations with resilience.
Table 2
Relationship Between the Cognitive Triad and Children’s Resilience (to see Table 2, please click here)
The results suggest that a positive cognitive triad is associated with higher resilience in children. Those with more positive views of themselves, the world, and the future tend to be more resilient, using cognitive resources to better cope with difficulties. The relatively lower score on the View of the World dimension may indicate a greater sensitivity to external factors, which can affect the development of resilience.
Testing research hypothesis 2. Parental competence moderates the relationship between children’s cognitive triad and their resilience.
To test whether parental competence moderates the relationship between the cognitive triad and children’s resilience, a moderation analysis was performed using Model 1 of the PROCESS macro v5.0 (Hayes, 2022).
Results showed that the cognitive triad is a significant positive predictor of resilience (B = .27, SE = 0.05, t = 5.77, p < .001), suggesting that higher levels of the cognitive triad are associated with greater resilience.
Parental competence also emerged as a significant positive predictor of resilience (B = .16, SE = 0.03, t = 5.42, p < .001), indicating that higher parental competence is associated with greater child resilience.
The interaction between parental competence and the cognitive triad had a significant effect on resilience (B = -.0066, SE = 0.003, t = -2.11, p = .036), suggesting that the impact of the cognitive triad on resilience is conditioned by the level of parental competence. Specifically, the positive effect of the cognitive triad on resilience becomes less pronounced as parental competence increases.
The regression model explained 26.6% of the variance in resilience (R² = 0.266), and the overall model was statistically significant (F(3, 507) = 61.31, p < .001), confirming the model’s validity.
Table 3
Moderating Role of Parental Competence in the Relationship Between the Cognitive Triad and Children’s Resilience (to see Table 3, please click here)
These findings indicate that as parental competence increases, the influence of the cognitive triad on children’s resilience decreases.
Testing research hypothesis 3. Parental competence is a predictor of children’s autonomy.
A linear regression analysis was used, with children’s autonomy as the dependent variable and parental competence as the predictor. Results showed that parental competence is a significant negative predictor of children’s autonomy (B = -0.12, SE = 0.05, t = -2.21, p = .028), suggesting that as parental competence increases, children’s autonomy tends to decrease.
The standardized Beta coefficient (β = -.10) indicates a weak to moderate effect. The model constant is 113.93 (SE = 4.23, t = 26.92, p < .001), reflecting the expected autonomy score in the absence of the influence of parental competence.
Table 4
Parental Competence as a Predictor of Children’s Autonomy (to see Table 4, please click here)
Testing research hypothesis 4. Helicopter parenting moderates the relationship between parental competence and children’s autonomy.
To examine the moderating role of helicopter parenting, a moderation analysis using Model 1 of the PROCESS macro v5.0 was conducted.
The interaction between parental competence and helicopter parenting had a significant effect on children’s autonomy (β = -.0040, SE = 0.0008, t = -5.1128, p < .001), indicating that helicopter parenting modifies the relationship between parental competence and autonomy.
Specifically, the effect of parental competence on autonomy depends on the level of helicopter parenting. As helicopter parenting increases, the positive relationship between competence and autonomy weakens (buffering effect), not necessarily amplifying a negative effect. Specifically, parental competence had a significant positive effect on autonomy only at low levels of helicopter parenting.
The regression model explained 8.86% of the variance in autonomy (R² = .09), and the overall model was significant (F = 16.43, p < .001), confirming its statistical validity.
Table 5
Moderating Role of Helicopter Parenting in the Relationship Between Parental Competence and Children’s Autonomy (to see Table 5, please click here)
Discussion and Conclusions
This study highlights the complex relationships among the cognitive triad, parental competence, helicopter parenting, resilience, and children’s autonomy. The findings indicate that a more positive view of the self, the world, and the future (the cognitive triad) is associated with higher levels of resilience, suggesting that optimistic cognitive patterns function as protective factors in children’s adaptation to adversity. At the same time, the relationship between the cognitive triad and resilience was moderated by parental competence, indicating that a supportive family environment may buffer the effects of negative cognitions on children’s adaptive capacity. Competent parents can provide emotional security, guidance, and resources that strengthen resilience, reducing children’s reliance solely on their internal cognitive resources when facing challenges (Masten, 2001; Ungar & Liebenberg, 2009). These findings emphasize the importance of interventions that simultaneously promote positive cognitive development in children and strengthen parental competence.
The results also confirmed that parental competence is a significant negative predictor of children’s autonomy. Although parental competence generally reflects confidence, effectiveness, and satisfaction in the parenting role, higher levels of perceived competence may also be associated with greater parental involvement and a more directive parenting style (Grolnick & Pomerantz, 2009). Parents who perceive themselves as highly competent may unintentionally limit opportunities for children to make independent decisions, solve problems on their own, and develop initiative. In addition, they may place greater expectations on their children, contributing to a more controlling parent–child dynamic (Soenens & Vansteenkiste, 2010). These findings suggest that parental competence does not automatically promote autonomy; rather, its effects depend on how competence is expressed in everyday parenting practices.
Furthermore, helicopter parenting significantly moderated the relationship between parental competence and children’s autonomy. This finding suggests that excessive parental control and constant supervision may diminish the positive aspects of parental competence by restricting children’s opportunities for exploration, independent decision-making, and personal initiative. Although these behaviors are often motivated by care and concern, they may inadvertently interfere with the development of autonomy. These results are consistent with previous research highlighting the developmental risks associated with overprotective parenting styles (Vigdal & Brønnick, 2022). This highlights the importance of supporting parents in managing their responsibilities, given the direct impact on the development of children’s autonomy.
Taken together, the findings have important practical implications. Parent-focused interventions should not only strengthen parental competence but also encourage balanced involvement that supports children’s independence while avoiding overprotective behaviors. Educational and preventive programs should help parents recognize the importance of gradually allowing children to assume age-appropriate responsibility and make independent decisions. At the same time, interventions aimed at fostering positive cognitive appraisals and effective coping strategies may further strengthen children’s resilience. Supporting both parental competence and children’s cognitive resources may therefore represent an effective approach to promoting healthy psychological development, resilience, and autonomy.
Limitations and Future Directions
This study has several limitations. Methodologically, an important limitation is the cross-sectional design, which makes it impossible to draw causal inferences between the studied variables, suggesting the need for longitudinal studies to better understand the causal directions of these interactions. The study is also limited by the use of self-report scales and convenience sampling, which implies a risk that participants’ responses may be influenced by their level of self-awareness and their tendency toward social desirability. Furthermore, considering the voluntary nature of participation, the generalizability of the results is limited.
The study opens new directions for research, such as further exploration of attachment styles, the influence of the school environment on the autonomous and resilient development of children, or long-term assessments of the impact of parental competence on children’s psychological development.
Conclusion
The study contributes to a better understanding of how parental competence and parenting styles influence children’s cognitive and emotional development, providing a robust framework for future research. Additionally, integrating the cognitive triad into the analysis of parental relationships may raise awareness of the factors involved in shaping children’s views of themselves, the world, and the future, with relevant implications for the field of educational psychology.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Ethics Committee Approval
The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Bucharest, Certificate No. 51/28.03.2024.
Consent to participate
Participants were informed about the purpose of the study and provided informed consent before participating. All data were treated confidentially and processed in accordance with applicable data protection regulations.
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